JOHN Whitlock | Germiston “Any individual or spy ring, in the service of a government, company, criminal organisation, or independent organisation, can commit espionage.” (Wikipedia)
In some circumstances it may be a legal tool of law enforcement and in others, it may be illegal. All nations have strict laws concerning espionage. The US conducts espionage against other nations under the control of the National Clandestine Service.
“Nonetheless, the general practice of espionage cannot be and is not explicitly illegal according to international law.” (The International Legal View of Espionage, Veronika Prochko, March 30, 2018)
Geoffrey B Demarest (Espionage in International Law, January 1996) states: “While clandestine information gathering will continue to be considered an unfriendly act between nations, such activity does not violate international law.”
“Espionage … is…