Innholdsfortegnelse for No. 43 i All About Space

'Teenage Jupiter' could reveal how planets are made NASA scientists are now helping decode new data from a young, gassy exoplanet Discovered back in December 2014 by the internationally operated Gemini Planet Imager (GPI), 51 Eridani (Eri) b is providing a fascinating insight into how young planets interact with their home star and whether other galaxies formed similar planets to our own. “This is exactly the kind of planet we envisioned discovering when we designed GPI”, says UC Berkeley professor James Graham, project scientist for GPI. The exoplanet 51 Eri b is also intriguing because of its similarity – and differences – to our very own gas giant, Jupiter. Current theories relating to the creation of gas giants suggest they are formed over a long period of time before quickly…

SURVIVING ON MARS Barren, cold and uninhabitable – will mankind be able to make a home out of the Red Planet? Written by Gemma Lavender Stranded on Mars. That’s the fate that befalls one unfortunate astronaut in Ridley Scott’s new film The Martian, based on the novel by Andy Weir. With no way to contact home, he must rely on his skills and the equipment available to stay alive in the face of deadly Martian elements. While the film and book are both works of fiction, it is true that going to Mars will be the most dangerous crewed space mission ever attempted. There are dust storms, radiation, an unbreathable atmosphere, fierce coldness and low gravity to contend with, while the astronauts themselves will have to constantly be in top…

Living on another world Turning our involve many adaptations and alterations Greenhouses Astronauts will be able to grow their own crops in greenhouses, meaning that they could keep feeding themselves indefinitely. A place to live Hermetically-sealed habitats that are entered through airlocks will support the astronauts. However, conditions are likely to be cramped, with little privacy. Hidden danger The pink sky on Mars looks calm and serene, but with the onset of Martian summer, huge dust storms can blow up that turn the sky dark and cover solar panels. Phoning home Talking with mission control or loved ones back home will be difficult for Mars astronauts. Because our two planets are so far away from each other, a signal will take up to 20 minutes to reach from one planet…

STAR QUAKES Seismic waves unleashed by the violent forces inside stars are revealing once-hidden secrets of stellar interiors Written by Giles Sparrow What does a star sound like? It might seem like a strange question, but every star in the sky is generating sound waves, even if we can’t hear them across light years of vacuum. What’s more, these stellar waves have frequencies much too low for human hearing – periods of minutes to hours, compared to the 20 to 20,000 cycles per second our ears can pick up. In effect, these sound waves are the same as the seismic waves that are known to cause earthquakes on our own planet. Most earthquakes are triggered in Earth’s relatively thin outer crust. In a similar fashion, stellar seismic waves are generated…

6 Controlling rovers from the ISS In June 2013, flight engineer Chris Cassidy took control of a K10 robot at NASA’s Ames Research Center in California, not from the ground, but from his station on the ISS. He drove around a simulated moonscape for three hours, demonstrating the future technology that could allow astronauts in space to send robotic scouts to the surface of other worlds. K10 is a four-wheel drive robot, weighing about 100 kilograms (220 pounds). It borrows technology from undersea exploration and is not just remote controlled, but can also intelligently plan its route across the terrain. K10 moves at a slow walking pace and builds a 3D picture of its environment using a combination of cameras and a scanning laser. K10 is also able to deploy…

8 Making coffee in Earth-orbit 1 Water pouch The astronaut first fills a pouch with water, and then fastens it to the coffee machine. 2 Water in The water is taken into the machine and pressurised, passing through a series of steel tubes and into the heater. 3 Heating Once the water has been pressurised, it is heated to the right temperature. 4 Coffee capsule Hot water passes through a coffee capsule, and the fresh coffee is pushed into the pouch. 5 Pressure difference A pressure differential is created inside the pouch so that when the straw goes in, the fresh coffee smell rushes out. 6 Coffee time The whole process takes just three minutes, barely longer than you have to wait for a coffee back on Earth. Making hot…

Mars Colonial Transporter Now boarding for Mars: MCT, the first interplanetary spaceliner © Adrian Mann MCT spaceliner The second stage of the MCT will be the vehicle that travels to and lands on Mars. It will carry around 100 people. Raptor engine SpaceX's new Raptor engine will power all stages of the MCT. It uses an innovative pumping system to achieve very high performance. Landing legs The MCT will have bigger versions of the Falcon 9 landing legs, for landing on Mars and returning to Earth. Passenger quarters Even at 12 metres (39 feet) in diameter, quarters would be very cosy, so the crew section may be expandable to increase the space. Propellant tanks The MCT will be fuelled by methane and liquid oxygen, as both of these can be…

TRACING GAIA’S JOURNEY 1 Stray light problem Shortly after launch, Gaia begins to suffer from ‘stray light’. Ice crystals cause light to diffract off the spacecraft’s sunshield and feed into the focal plane, seriously affecting the data and images Gaia can capture. 2 Arriving at nothingness In early 2014, Gaia arrives at its destination, the L2 Lagrangian point. This is an ideal location for observing the cosmos due to the way centrifugal forces between the Earth and the Sun are compensated there. 3 Coming into focus In early 2014, the Gaia observatory is still bringing its lenses into focus. While testing its lenses, Gaia captures images of the Large Magellanic Cloud (a satellite galaxy full of bright, young stars). 4 Frozen optics On 29 July 2014, the Gaia observatory emerges…

EUROPA’S ALIEN OCEANS With a spacecraft to Europa now in development, this icy moon – that may harbour life in an underground sea – is finally getting the attention it deserves Written by Jonathan O'Callaghan The race is on. Somewhere out there, in the Solar System or beyond, experts think we will find extraterrestrial life for the first time in the coming decades. Some say Mars will be our best bet. Others think a habitable exoplanet will provide the first clear sign. But over the last few years, an icy moon of Jupiter has quickly become one of the prime candidates: Europa. NASA is now developing a mission to go there, tentatively called the Europa Multiple Flyby Mission, to find out if the moon is habitable. Expected to launch as…

Beneath the icy crust Europa's underground ocean having on the moon? Surface Europa's surface is thought to be fairly young – about 40 to 90 million years old – due to constant activity. Subsumption bands Similar to subduction zones on Earth, Europa may have regions where old ice is pushed down and new ice rises, known as subsumption bands. Red lines No one is quite sure what the red lines on Europa are, but recent evidence suggests they may be radiation-bombarded sea salt from the ocean below. Flybys The Europa spacecraft will fly as low as 25km (15.5mi) above the surface, easily low enough to resolve many of the unexplained features. Scans The Europa spacecraft will have an ice penetrating radar on board to measure the thickness of Europa's ice…

Radiation on Jupiter's moons The radiation levels on Jupiter's four Galilean moons decrease with distance from the planet (in decreasing order: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto). A lethal dose of radiation for a human over a few days is four sieverts. If you were standing on the surface of Io, you would be subjected to 36 sieverts. Europa is a little better, but still deadly, at 5.4 sieverts. On Ganymede it's considerably safer at 0.08 sieverts, while on Callisto the dose is a paltry 0.1 millisieverts.…

DEEP SPACE Do all galaxies spin in the same direction? Joe Lettington Most of the galaxies in the universe do spin the same way, but there are exceptions. Spiral galaxy NGC 4622, which rests some 111 million light years away in the constellation Centaurus, is an example. In most spiral galaxies, the spiral arms appear to be winding away from the centre. NGC 4622, on the other hand, leads with the tips of its arms, causing it to appear as if the galaxy is winding up. This could be down to a collision with another galaxy, or others have suggested that it could be the result of cannibalising another galaxy. The idea of a galactic structure that rotates backwards was originally met with scepticism. However, observations of the galaxy have…

ASTRONOMY When is the best time to observe a planet? Karen Maguire The best time to view a planet is while it is high in the sky during the darkest part of the night – this is because planets change their relative position in the sky from day to day. If you watch the night sky for a series of nights, you will find that this is much more noticeable with the inner planets. As with all stargazing, you'll see planets best on a dark night, with a cloudless sky and no Moon, or with a very thin crescent at the most. Mars and the gas planets are best viewed while they are at opposition, which is when the Earth lies directly between the planet and the Sun; the planet…

SPACE EXPLORATION Can an astronaut use a compass in space? Katie Sims © NASA; ESA; ESO; Harvard University PR It depends where the astronaut is in space. On Earth, a compass works using the magnetic field, where it points towards magnetic north. Compasses always align themselves with the strongest magnetic field closest to them – this is why when you put a magnet close to a compass, it will point towards a different direction. In space, as you move further from our planet, its magnetic field will become weaker. However, despite the weakness, a compass will still be able to align with the magnetic field. A compass on the International Space Station (ISS) would still be able to point reliably to the Earth’s North Pole. If an astronaut went further…

Top dark sky sites Here are some of the best dark sky sites in the UK and Europe © 2Mass; freevectormaps.com; Getty Images; NASA Stargazing at Eddington Lodge Enjoy the exceptional dark skies and learn more about the wonders of the universe in North Cornwall with Eddington Lodge, which offers three self-catering log cabins fully fitted out to be both practical and comfortable for astronomers of all ages. Two observation pods with 20" Dobsonian telescopes are available on this stargazing holiday, offering you the chance to feast your eyes on a variety of night sky gems untouched by light pollution. Eddington Lodge also features an observatory for astrophotography, allowing you to bring home a momento from your astronomy holiday. Prices start at £60 (approx $92) per night.…

Telescope mount buyer’s guide The correct mount makes all the difference to your views of the night sky. All About Space finds one that’s right for you @ Celestron Best for... Beginner Intermediate Low budget Medium budget High budget Alt-azimuth, fork equatorial, German equatorial – so many mounts, but which is the right one for you? With a wide variety on the market, combined with the different types and brands of telescopes available to astronomers, it’s easy to become overwhelmed. However, you can cut out the guesswork by considering the budget you have and the type of objects that you’re planning to observe. Another factor is whether you’re looking to seriously get into astrophotography, or how easy – or difficult – you prefer your setting up to be. Mounts make…

Find the ice giant in five easy steps 1 Alpha Piscium Locate the star Alpha Piscium, also known as Alrescha. It is at the bottom of the large 'V' shape of the constellation and is the brightest star of the pattern. 2 Xi Piscium From Alpha Piscium head northwest to the next bright star in the constellation called Xi Piscium. These two stars should fit comfortably in the same binocular field. 3 Nu Piscium Keep heading northwest. The next bright star to find is Nu Piscium. Once again these two stars should fit into the same binocular field of view. 4 Zeta Piscium Keep on heading northwest past the next star in the chain, which is Mu Piscium, and on to Zeta Piscium. You are very close now. 5 Uranus!…

Stargazing stories Email the story of how you got into astronomy to photos@spaceanswers.com for a chance to feature in All About Space Niki Giada Location: Pesaro, Italy Twitter: @nikigiada Info: Astronomer for 20 years Current rig Telescope: Konus Konuscope 200mm reflector Mount: Equatorial mount Other: Nikon D610 DSLR, infrared remote, Baader AstroSolar safety filter, software including CalSky, RegiStax 6.1, Photoshop Lightroom “Ever since I was seven years old, I have studied the night sky. My first bits of kit were a pair of 10x50 binoculars, along with a 60mm refractor telescope – thanks to them I fell in love with astronomy, with Comet Hale-Bopp being my favourite. “Thanks to two generations of photographers in my family, I soon became involved in astrophotography and joined the local astronomical society at the…

LAUNCH PAD YOUR FIRST CONTACT WITH THE UNIVERSE Spectacular star trail Star trail images are created by giving a night sky photograph a long exposure time, often hours, to show the apparent motions of the stars through the sky. The characteristic concentric circles that a star trail photo creates are caused by the Earth spinning on its axis. A range of colours - including yellows, blues, oranges, pinks and turquoises - can all be seen illuminating the sky in locations around the world. The shades are a result of different surface temperatures of the stars. Sounding out the aurora For the last 40 years, NASA’s Sounding Rocket Program has used suborbital missions to provide scientific and technical information to the space agency. In January 2015, the Auroral Spatial Structures Probe…

Neon discovered in lunar 'atmosphere' The long-speculated presence of the gas has finally been confirmed For decades, scientists have theorised that our lunar neighbour’s atmosphere contains traces of neon, the chemical element commonly used in illuminated signs. Now, thanks to NASA’s Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE), we know that the Moon’s atmosphere holds more than just a mere trace. "The presence of neon in the 'atmosphere' of the Moon has been a subject of speculation since the Apollo missions, but no credible detections were made," says Mehdi Benna of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center and the University of Maryland. "We were very pleased to not only finally confirm its presence, but to show that it is relatively abundant." This considerable concentration of neon in the Moon’s exosphere (a…

Our path to Mars Steadily, and with the right technology, we're hoping to land man on the Red Planet Mission length: 6›12 months Relying on Earth Time to return to Earth: hours Humans in orbit Rockets have allowed astronauts to gain access to space via low-Earth orbit. International Space Station We've managed to master the very basics of getting to Mars on the International Space Station. Landing on a foreign body Mission length: 1›12 months Time to return to Earth: days Humans on asteroids By visiting an asteroid redirected to lunar orbit, we're hoping to expand our manned space exploration capabilities. Getting ready for Mars Mission length: 2›3 years Time to return to Earth: months Manned exploration of the Red Planet We're aiming to gain planetary independence by landing on…

Mars One roadmap How a private organisation plans to be the first to land man on Mars 2016 Mars on Earth After its selection of 40 astronauts, Mars One intends to simulate Mars' conditions at multiple locations on our own planet, including the Arctic. 2022 Rover exploration Exploration of the Red Planet is essential before Mars One can send humans to its surface. By 2020, the organisation intends to send a rover to Mars. 2027 First astronauts land on Mars Approximately 24 hours before landing, the crew will move from the transit habitat into the landing module, bringing some supplies with them. The landing module will then detach from the transit habitat, which is too large to land on Mars. 2026 Mars One send first astronauts In 2026, the components…

Stellar concert Thanks to data from Kepler and other missions, it’s becoming clear that all stars have their own oscillations, like instruments in an orchestra @ Ron Miller Shell burning Deep a - out core of helium surrounded by a hydrogen-burning shell that generates energy Type of star: Sun-like subgiant Mass: 1.2 times the Sun's mass Radius: 2.1 times the Sun's radius Temperature: 5,225°C (9,437°F) Small giants Comparatively giants generate relatively high-frequency waves – though still much lower than those of subgiants Type of star: Small red giant Mass: 1 times the Sun's mass Radius: 5 times the Sun's radius Temperature: 5,000°C (9,032°F) Bigger and cooler As a red giant brightens and swells in size its surface cools because there is a far larger surface area for energy to escape…

10 AMAZING SPACE STATION EXPERIMENTS The International Space Station is more than just an outpost in space, it is a huge orbiting research laboratory The International Space Station (ISS) houses an incredible array of cutting-edge research facilities, allowing scientists back on Earth to conduct pioneering experiments in space. Different space agencies, academic institutions and private companies from across the world share the onboard facilities, taking it in turns to perform their experiments. Delicate tests can be conducted in microgravity inside the station itself, and outside experiments can be exposed to vacuum and radiation. With a clear view of space and out of the reaches of the Earth’s atmosphere, the ISS is also the perfect place to investigate the universe. Some experiments investigate the physical sciences, looking at the behaviour of…

3 Growing tomatoes in space 1 Preparing the seeds 600,000 seeds are prepared and packed ready for the journey into space. Another 600,000 remain on the ground. 2 To the space station The seeds travel to the ISS on board the SpaceX Dragon, a privately owned cargo spacecraft. 3 Time in space The seeds spend five weeks in microgravity, orbiting the Earth at 7.7km (4.8mi) per second. 4 Back to Earth The seeds return to Earth, where they are delivered to thousands of schools across North America. 5 The experiment The students do not know which seeds have been to space so that both types are grown in the same conditions. 6 Citizen scientists Since the experiment started in 2001, more than three million students have become space tomato experts…

5 3D printing without gravity Imagine what space travel would be like if new parts and tools could be delivered to astronauts at the touch of a button. That is the aim of Made In Space, Inc. and its 3D printer on board the ISS. In November 2014, NASA astronaut Barry “Butch” Wilmore became the first person to use a 3D printer in space. After a few test runs, a Made In Space engineer sent the plans for a wrench to the ISS for the first test of on-demand printing. Four hours and 104 layers of plastic later, the wrench was finished. Operating a 3D printer in space is a huge technical challenge. On Earth, gravity helps the plastic to sit in neat layers as it is extruded, but on…

9 Testing inflatable homes Humans are going to need places to live when we travel to the Moon, Mars and beyond, and where better to test them than the ISS? The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module, or BEAM for short, is due to be carried to the space station in 2015 on board SpaceX Dragon. Packed up, the BEAM only measures 1.7 x 2.4 metres (5.7 x 7.8 feet), but when filled with pressurised air, it inflates to form a space that is 3.7 x 3.3 metres (12 x 10.5 feet), about the size of a small bedroom. It is made up of many layers, including an air cushion and a shield that will protect the structure from damage by dust and debris. In the case of a collision with a…

Ready to fly? The selection criteria for the first cosmonauts were very different from those applied by today’s Russian space programme @ Alamy; Getty Images; ROSIZO; Russian Academy of Sciences ; The Museum of Cosmonautics; The Science Museum Military pilot Although early cosmonauts were effectively passengers, jet pilots were considered well suited to cope with the stresses of a spaceflight. Valentina Tereshkova, an experienced parachutist, was given an honorary Air Force rank before her mission. Age below 30 Cosmonauts needed to combine their flight experience with relative youth – no one could anticipate the physical effects of spaceflight. Good health Prior to selection, candidates were screened for chronic health problems. Even minor illness could threaten a pilot with substitution. Party membership Given the highly political nature of the Vostok missions,…

Inside Europa On its surface, Europa is covered in a frozen layer of ice, with a thin oxygen atmosphere above. But the discovery of lines crossing the surface, and possible melt-through from below known as ‘chaos’, has led scientists to believe there is a vast ocean under the surface, waiting to be explored. The floating ice shell on top of Europa is thought to be about 20 kilometres (12 miles) thick. Beneath this, an ocean may extend up to 100 kilometres (62 miles) down. If these predictions are correct, Europa has a greater volume of water than Earth. Europa’s elliptical orbit around Jupiter causes it to stretch and shrink. This leads to tidal heating at its core, which is thought to melt subsurface ice. At the bottom of the ocean,…

Ice moon mission The spacecraft will head to the outer Solar System well-equipped Solar power In 2014, it was decided that the spacecraft would be powered by solar panels, rather than a more expensive radioisotope thermoelectric generator. MASPEX The Mass Spectrometer for Planetary Exploration/Europa (MASPEX) will measure Europa's thin atmosphere, helping determine the composition of the surface and subsurface ocean. Antenna The High Gain Antenna will be used to communicate with Earth, sending back images and data from Europa. Magnetometer The magnetometer will measure the magnetic field near Europa, revealing the thickness and salinity of the subsurface ocean. E-THEMIS The Europa Thermal Emission Imaging System (E-THEMIS) will use heat detection to find active sites on the surface, such as plumes of water erupting into space from vents. Europa Imaging System…

Kepler-452b: NASA’s biggest breakthrough All About Space caught up with Jon Jenkins, the astronomer who discovered our planet’s ancient exoplanet cousin orbiting a Sun-like star Interviewed by Gemma Lavender Jon Jenkins Jon Jenkins is a team member of the Kepler Space Telescope, NASA’s first mission capable of finding Earth-sized planets orbiting Sun-like stars. He holds a PhD in Planetary Science and is currently based at the SETI Institute as a Principal Investigator, where he is interested in the possibility of detecting planets orbiting double stars. Could you tell us a bit more about how you found the exoplanet Kepler-452b? Essentially, we used the Kepler Space Telescope, which was launched in 2009. Kepler collected data for four years, observing the same patch of sky of around 115 square degrees in size…

SPACE EXPLORATION If astronauts took a ride on a comet, would they be able to feel how fast they were moving? Shaun White Just as we don’t feel the movement of the Earth around the Sun, astronauts on a comet wouldn't be able to feel a comet speeding through space. The conditions on one of these icy space snowballs are a topic of recent discussion. The successful Rosetta mission is giving us an unprecedented view of the surface of a comet after deployment of its lander, Philae and we are just starting to truly understand what comets are like. This comes at a good time for space exploration as NASA is looking at sending astronauts to land on the surface of an asteroid or possibly a comet. The data coming…

SOLAR SYSTEM What is it like on Neptune’s moon Triton? Benjamin Decks The moon Triton is a freezing, icy world with a surface made of mostly frozen nitrogen and water. Beneath the surface there is thought to be an icy mantle surrounding a rocky, metal core. Movement of this mantle means Triton is likely to be geologically active. Pieces of the crust are shifted and replaced, similar to plate tectonics here on Earth. As a result, the surface is constantly being renewed and appears relatively young. Some areas of the moon are thought to have jets of erupting nitrogen from the surface called geysers. Triton is the seventh largest moon in the Solar System. The chilly world is a little strange as it orbits around its planet, Neptune, in the…

Dark sky astronomy All About Space heads to the blackest of skies for the best astronomical sights As you lie back and look up at the sky, the Milky Way sprawls like a dusty rainbow from one side of the heavens to the other. You can see its bright bulge in the middle and dark patches running the length of its starlit arch. Elsewhere, 3,000 stars dazzle as the diffuse glow of zodiacal light illuminates the horizon. You can pick out the distant Andromeda Galaxy, globular clusters and fuzzy nebulae with your eyes alone. Sound familiar? Perhaps not. Unfortunately, this sort of view is an increasing rarity for many of us. Modern technology and the advent of electric lighting has seen more and more of our night sky taken over…

Finding your way around The only star not to move as the Earth rotates; Polaris makes an excellent starting point 1 Gaze roughly north Face roughly in the direction of north (the setting Sun in the west is a good guide). 2 Find the Plough Locate Ursa Major and the seven famous stars within it in the shape of a saucepan. 3 Locate the pointer stars Find the two stars on the right side of the saucepan – the two furthest from the 'handle'. 4 Follow them to Polaris Join the line between the two stars and extend it upwards until you reach Polaris.…

How to view Uranus The turquoise ice giant reaches opposition in October - here's how to see it The planet Uranus was first discovered by Sir William Herschel in March 1781, greatly expanding the known size of the Solar System. It was the first planet to be discovered with the aid of a telescope – an instrument that Herschel built himself and used in his garden in Bath, England. This year sees Uranus come to opposition on 12 October, which means it will be directly opposite the Sun in our skies, in the constellation of Pisces. Opposition is also when we are closest to the planet in our respective orbits. This is the best time to view the planet, as it will be visible for most of the night and…

What’s in the sky? The skies of early autumn are packed full of deep sky delights whether you have a telescope, binoculars or just the naked eye Northern Hemisphere Triangulum Galaxy, M33 Viewable time: Best seen an hour or two either side of midnight Due to its low surface brightness, M33 is notoriously difficult to observe, although it does show up well in long exposure images. In a small telescope it will appear as a faint patch of light rather than looking like a star. It lies three million light years away and is the third largest member of the Local Group. Sculptor Galaxy, NGC 253 Viewable time: Best seen an hour or two either side of midnight Discovered by Caroline Herschel in 1783, Sculptor is sometimes known as the…

Meade Infinity 80AZ An attractive and affordable telescope for beginners, this refractor offers everything you need to break into astronomy Telescope advice Cost: £120 / $189.99 From: Hama UK Ltd Type: Refractor Aperture: 3.2” Focal length: 15.8” Best for... Beginners Small budget Planetary viewing Lunar viewing Bright deep-sky objects Basic astrophotography For its retail price, we were impressed with the build of the Meade Infinity 80AZ, along with its performance, when we took the instrument out for a night of observations on an August evening. Unpacking the refractor, we noted that the telescope comes very well-equipped with three eyepieces for low, medium and high-magnification and a Barlow lens, as well as a DVD that provides instructions on how to set up the telescope. We were pleased with the addition of…

Alexei Leonov The first man to walk in space Today spacewalks are an almost routine part of space exploration but the very first spacewalk by Alexei Leonov was anything but straightforward. Born in the Altai region of Siberia on 30 May 1934, he graduated from a selection of air force academies with honours and was quickly picked to be one of the first 20 people for the Soviet space program. Leonov had actually expected to become a professional artist, but his life took a very different turn, as he became a key player in the Space Race. In 1965 the Soviet Union was well ahead of the US in the race to land humans on the Moon: they had already launched the first satellite, animal, man and woman into space.…

2015 asteroid collision with Earth "very unlikely", says NASA The American space agency quashes fears that a planetary body will impact our planet near Costa Rica Rumours were abound that an asteroid is set to cause wanton destruction to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of Mexico and the United States, as well as Central and South America, this month. The belief, which originated from a number of blogs and websites focused around the Blue Moon Prophecy (a biblical hypothesis that heralds the coming of the ‘end times’), was causing such a viral ruckus online that NASA itself had to step in to address the issue head on. As per usual, its response was quick and to the point. "There is no scientific basis – not one shred of evidence –…

Sounding rocket to study hottest part of Sun NASA's MOSES-2 aims to study the mysteries of the Sun’s atmosphere © NASA; JPL; ESA; SETI Institute; Danielle Futselaar; Franck Marchis; M. Donahue If there’s one area of solar physics that’s fascinated and bemused scientists more than any other, it’s the stark difference in heat between the Sun’s surface and its atmosphere, otherwise known as coronal heating. The atmosphere is around 1,000 times hotter than the boiling solar surface within it. A new NASA mission aims to use an instrument known as a Multi-Order Solar EUV Spectrograph or MOSES-2 to capture images of the Sun in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light. “The transition region is a pretty interesting place,” explains Charles Kankelborg, principal investigator for MOSES-2 at Montana State University. The transition region…

Next generation spacesuit The Z2 spacesuit is specifically designed for roving the Red Planet Moving with ease Unlike most spacesuits, the Z-series sports a waist bearing, which allows extra mobility when walking as the astronaut swings their hips. Hard shell The torso on the Z2 is built out of an impact-resistant hard composite, increasing its durability to protect the astronaut inside. Docking port The Z-series of spacesuits are unique in that they feature a docking port on the back that allows the suit to connect with airlocks on vehicles and habitats. Life support The advanced Portable Life Support System contains batteries, a carbon dioxide remover, humidity monitors, oxygen and suit pressure controls. Sure footed An ankle bearing in the suit’s boots allows the user to step sure-footed over rough terrain.…

The sound of stars By influencing the three types of seismic waves passing through it, a star’s internal structure affects the pattern of oscillations seen at its surface f-mode waves Surface-gravity or ‘f-mode’ waves are created at the surface and move across the star like waves on the ocean p-mode waves Pressure or ‘p-mode’ waves are most similar to familiar sound waves, and are generated by local pressure changes inside the star g-mode waves Gravity or ‘g-mode’ waves are generated where gravity counteracts the internal buoyancy of rising gas Layering Just like light waves passing from air to water, the passage from one internal layer of a star to another with different properties can deflect waves, or even reflect them completely Core chemistry The speed at which waves travel straight…

4 How space travel affects the human body The crew on the ISS spend over an hour every day exercising. This is not only vital for their wellbeing; it also helps scientists to gather information about the effects of space on the human body. There are three main pieces of gym equipment on board the space station – an exercise bike, a treadmill, and a weights machine – each of which has been modified for the conditions onboard the ISS. A standard weight machine would not work without gravity, so the ISS Advanced Resistive Exercise Device uses pistons and vacuum cylinders instead. The astronaut has to pull against the vacuum to move the machine, and specially designed flywheels help to make it feel more like lifting weights on Earth. When…

GAIA AT WORK Space armour This thermal tent is vital to Gaia’s ongoing safety – working alongside the sunshade it protects the craft's inner workings from heat, radiation and the extreme cold of space. Direct line to Earth The Gaia observatory is designed to collect huge amounts of information: over the coming years the craft will transmit 1 million gigabytes of data back to Earth. World’s greatest detective All of Gaia’s delicate instruments are filtered through one device – the focal plane. It contains a total of 106 CCDs which convert data into high-quality images. Keeping on course Like many other space vehicles, the Gaia spacecraft uses a series of sensors called star trackers. These ensure the observatory can correctly navigate through space. Stars in its eyes Alongside its CCDs…

The Cosmonauts How Russia pioneered the age of human spaceflight Written by Giles Sparrow The 1950s and early 1960s saw the Russian-dominated Soviet Union take a decisive lead in the new age of space exploration, leaving the United States trailing in its wake. How did Russian space scientists achieve so much – and why did the hammer-and-sickle flag never fly on the Moon? The dawn of the Space Age came as a shock to almost everyone. US plans to launch a satellite during the International Geophysical Year of 1957 to 1958 had been well publicised, but the Soviet space programme was widely assumed to trail far behind. So when Russian news agency TASS announced on 4 October 1957 that the beach ball-sized Sputnik 1 had successfully reached orbit, it shook…

Tethys Saturn’s bright moon is home to some of the most impressive surface features in the Solar System © JPL; NASA Arguably the standout feature on Tethys is the Odysseus impact basin, a 450-kilometre (280-mile) wide hole – nearly half the moon's diameter. It is thought to have been created by a massive impact over three billion years ago, which may also have formed the 2,000-kilometre (1,242-mile) long valley called Ithaca Chasma. Tethys’s albedo, or surface reflectivity, differs on either hemisphere, which shows up in this enhanced colour image taken by the Cassini spacecraft at a distance of about 53,000 kilometres (33,000 miles): the leading side on the right is bombarded by charged particles from Saturn’s radiation belt, changing the chemical composition of the surface material. On the trailing side,…

Jupiter's intense magnetic field Radiation belts Intense areas of magnetism around Jupiter channel incoming solar plasma and particles from its volcanic moon Io into belts, shaped like doughnuts. Magnetosphere Jupiter's magnetic influence, its magnetosphere, is the largest of the planets in the Solar System, extending 4.8mn km (3mn mi) in diameter. Magnetic axis Like Earth, Jupiter's magnetic poles are tilted slightly from its rotational axis by about ten degrees. Cause Jupiter's magnetic field is thought to be partly fed by particles ejected by volcanoes on the moon Io. The solar wind is also thought to play a part in shaping the magnetosphere. Spacecraft The radiation can wreak havoc on spacecraft. This Europa spacecraft will be in a large orbit, dipping in and out, to alleviate the effects, but it may…

Kepler's laws of planetary motion Solar System Kepler’s third law can be applied to our Solar System. Mercury’s orbit is just 88 Earth days compared to our 365-day orbit, so we know that Mercury is closer to the Sun than Earth. Perihelion A planet will move faster when it is closer to the Sun, creating a broader triangle. The point of nearest approach is called the perihelion. Equal areas rule Let's say we drew a line from the orbiting object (a planet) to the object being orbited (the Sun in this case) and then drew another 31 days later. The area of the resulting triangle will always be the same, no matter where on the eclipse you start the sample. Aphelion When a planet is furthest from the Sun, it…

SOLAR SYSTEM If I travelled through the Kuiper Belt, would I hit anything? Tim Horner The chances of hitting anything are very low. The Kuiper Belt is a huge collection of icy and rocky bodies that are remnants of our Solar System’s formation. It spans 30 to 50 times Earth's distance from the Sun, which is around 4 to 7.2 billion kilometres (2.5 to 4.5 billion miles). While most of these objects are considered to be small chunks of ice and rock there are some that are much bigger. However, the distances between Kuiper Belt objects are enormous – so large that NASA has calculated that a collision between these objects would happen about once every ten million years. SA…

DEEP SPACE Is space getting colder? Stephen Pink Yes it is. Ever since the Big Bang, the event that’s widely accepted to have created the universe, the cosmos has been expanding. The cosmos is thought to have started out as a single infinitely hot and dense point called a singularity and, as all of the first stars and galaxies began getting further apart, the universe also started cooling down. Its temperature is still decreasing to this day. It’s possible to find out the temperature of the universe by measuring the cosmic microwave background (CMB), which is the thermal radiation left over from the Big Bang. By investigating the CMB, we’ve been able to determine that its temperature has been dropping off gradually as our universe pans out. We understand the…

ASTRONOMY What type of telescope is best for travelling? Ryan Hanks Travelling with a good telescope is tricky, as generally bigger is better. However, careful small purchases can give you the chance to observe on the road. Often when people get into astronomy, they quickly learn that size can mean everything when it comes to what you can see in the night sky – but even small scopes can perform remarkably well, making it easy to travel with good equipment. Small telescopes with apertures of 3 to 5 inches should still give you good views of Saturn’s rings, Venus’ phases, Jupiter’s clouds and moons, and even the Andromeda Galaxy. Another option is a good pair of binoculars. While not as specialised as telescopes, they can still offer great views of…

SOLAR SYSTEM How long for our Sun to form? A star like our Sun takes tens of millions of years to be made. Formation occurs in several stages, beginning with the collapse of a giant cloud of molecular hydrogen under gravity. This collapsing cloud breaks up into smaller fragments, each being home to an embryonic star. Over time, gas builds in the shape of a spinning disc around the baby star, causing it to grow. The makings of the star can produce heat thanks to the energy made from the gravitational collapse. Eventually, a great deal of gas piles onto the star, causing both an increase in temperature and pressure at its centre. This begins a reaction known as fusion, where lighter atoms of hydrogen are able to fuse…

DEEP SPACE What would we see if we lived in a star cluster? Jennifer Honey If our planet were in a star cluster, our night sky would be teeming with many stars. Clusters, such as the ball-shaped globular cluster, often contain millions of stars. In the Earth’s night sky, these stars would still appear as points of light – due to their distance, they would not have sizes that are easily resolved by the human eye. However, these stars would be more than a thousand times brighter than our planet’s brightest night-time star, Sirius. If all of the stars in the cluster were just like our Sun, then they would combine to make a night sky around 20 times brighter than our planet’s night sky during full Moon. GL…

How dark is your sky? Inner city Bortle scale reading: 9 Dark sky reading: <18 Faintest magnitude visible: +4 Suburban/urban transition Bortle scale reading: 7 Dark sky reading: 18.5-19 Faintest magnitude visible: +5 Suburban sky Bortle scale reading: 5 Dark sky reading: 20-21 Faintest magnitude visible: +6 Rural sky Bortle scale reading: 3 Dark sky reading: 21-22 Faintest magnitude visible: +7 Excellent dark sky site Bortle scale reading: 1 Dark sky reading: 22 and above Faintest magnitude visible: +8…

Top dark sky sights Take our night sky marathon for the very best astronomical treasures 1 Starting point 2 Great Cluster (M13) Target type: Globular clusterConstellation: HerculesMagnitude: +5.8Right ascension: 16h 41m 41.24sDeclination: +36° 27' 35.5" From Polaris, head through Draco to the ‘Keystone’ asterism that makes Hercules' body. M13 is on the right-hand edge of the shape formed by the four stars. 3 Ring Nebula (M57) Target type: Planetary nebulaConstellation: LyraMagnitude: +8.8Right ascension: 18h 53m35.079sDeclination: +33° 01' 45.03" From move towards the band of the Milky Way and the bright star Vega. M57 is just below Vega. 4 Brocchi's Cluster Target type: Open clusterConstellation: VulpeculaMagnitude: +3.6Right ascension: 19h 25m 24sDeclination: +20° 11' 00" From Lyra, find Cygnus flying across the Milky Way and locate the head of the swan. Vulpecula…

See dwarf planet Eris In the same region of sky, southeast of Uranus and in the neighbouring constellation of Cetus, lies the dwarf planet Eris. This tiny frozen world is even further away than Pluto so it is very faint, but it is within the grasp of large amateur telescopes equipped with specialist imaging gear. The dwarf planet can't be seen in any detail, but if you take images of the region over several nights and compare them, the star that appears to be moving against the background is likely to be Eris.…

Me & My Telescope your astronomy photos pictures of you with your telescope to photos@spaceanswers.com and we’ll showcase them every issue Jeff Johnson Las Cruces, New Mexico Telescope: Takahashi FS-60C refractor “I have a long love of astronomy and have observed the night sky for many years with binoculars, and a telescope from the age of ten. I did my first ‘real’ astrophotography in 1996, when I used a 35mm SLR (film) camera to take photos of Comet Hyakutake. I took a tripod out into the desert in Las Cruces and just experimented with exposures. Later, I bought a 10" Dobsonian for viewing, and within a week, was taking pictures through the eyepiece for fun.” Jaspal Chadha Clerkenwell, London Telescope: Altair Astro RC250-TT and SkyWatcher Esprit 100ED “I have been…

Astronomy software for beginners All About Space puts two interactive planetariums to the test, to find the best tour of the night sky SkyGazer 4.5 Cost: £49.00 / $32 From: Carina Software & Instruments Inc Carina Software’s SkyGazer 4.5 offers all the necessary information to make touring the night sky a breeze, ideal for budding astronomers running either Windows or Mac OS X systems. We enjoyed the close-up three-dimensional views of the planets in our Solar System, along with the database that contains digestible information on these worlds and their moons, along with thousands of asteroids and comets. A fun feature allowed us to recreate historical sky simulations, such as Mars appearing to pass in front of Jupiter back in 1170 AD. We were also able to download the latest…