Innholdsfortegnelse for No. 54 i All About Space

Discover the wonders of the universe © NG Studios/Brendan Hall The universe hosts many mysteries, but, perhaps one of the biggest is dark energy. Accounting for 68.3 per cent of the cosmos, this force is pushing space apart, driving the expansion of the universe that sees galaxies racing away from us. Ever since Albert Einstein proposed dark energy, scientists have been scratching their heads about what it really is, what it could look like, and how it could determine the fate of the universe. All About Space meets the scientists who have made some head way in understanding more about the universe’s biggest-ever mystery over on page 16. Elsewhere in the issue, we reveal the stars due to explode in an astronomically-short time with a force that’s not too dissimilar…

News in Brief China prepares assembly of own space station The People’s Republic of China is preparing to construct its very own space station, and it’s also hoping to invite the United Nations (UN) along for the ride too. The Chinese government has agreed to a partnership with the UN that will allow non-Chinese firms to help manufacture components for the new space station, in a bid to show its desire for international cooperation with the project. Fire experiment ignited aboard space cargo ship In order to further its understanding of fire and how it behaves in microgravity, NASA set fire to a strip of cotton-fibreglass on board an unmanned cargo ship in orbit around Earth. The Space Fire Experiment (Saffire-I), which took place on 14 June, is the largest…

Magnetar’s wind nebula seen for the very first time High-energy particles have been discovered around a magnetic star © ESO; NASA; JPL-Caltech; MSSS; ESA; ATG medialab; Dr. Seth Shostak; Science Photo Library; Goddard Space Flight Center; S. Wiessinger In a fascinating turn of events, astronomers at NASA have located an ultra-magnetic neutron star, known more commonly as a magnetar, surrounded by a volatile celestial phenomenon called a ’wind nebula’. Swift J1834.9-0846 – or J1834.9 – was discovered by NASA’s Swift satellite on 7 August 2011. It’s also believed that this crushed and fuel-less core of a former star was a by-product of the colossal W41 supernova remnant located some 13,000 light years away. “We don’t know how J1834.9 developed and continues to maintain a wind nebula, which until now was…

Dark energy vs dark matter © Tobias Roetsch DARK MATTER It’s entirely invisible and neither emits or absorbs heat, light or radiation of any kind. It can be detected indirectly by its gravitational effect on normal matter and space-time. It comprises 84.54 per cent of all matter in the universe, or 26.8 per cent of the universe’s total makeup It plays a crucial role in galaxy formation and stops galaxies from flying apart. DARK ENERGY It is accelerating the expansion of space, shown by studies of supernovae in distant galaxies. It exerts a small, negative pressure that’s constant throughout space and acts against gravity. It was first discovered in the late 1990s by astronomers. It affects the shape of the universe and its large-scale structure, such as how galaxies and…

The Solar System’s changing planets As the Sun swells to a red giant, it will have a dramatic effect on the planets and their moons Neptune The outermost of the major planets, Neptune orbits so far from the Sun that it will never make it out of deep-freeze, even when the Sun is at its biggest and brightest. Uranus The inner of the Solar System’s two ice giants, Uranus will experience habitable temperatures, warm enough to melt ice on the surface of its moons, for just 2mn years. Jupiter Increased solar heating will cause Jupiter’s atmosphere to balloon in size. Its giant moons will enjoy a habitable phase lasting around 30mn years. Mars Our outer neighbour will probably survive the Sun’s expansion, and could even have habitable conditions for 100mn…

Interstellar road map Given how difficult it is to travel far from the Earth, where might our interstellar travels take us? THE LOCATIONS Alpha Centauri Distance from Earth: 4.37 light years Current travel time: 30,000 years Interstellar speed travel time: 43 years This three-star system includes Proxima Centauri, which is the nearest star to Earth after the Sun. It is believed there may be planets around these stars. Barnard’s Star Distance from Earth: 5.96 light years Current travel time: 42,500 years Interstellar speed travel time: 60 years One of the fastest moving stars in the galaxy, this is also the closest star to Earth (after the Sun) that is visible from the Northern Hemisphere. Wolf 359 Distance from Earth: 7.78 light years Current travel time: 55,500 years Interstellar speed travel…

SPACE EXPLORATION Will we ever send a mission to Planet 9? Nigel Bennett We need to confirm the existence of Planet 9 first. This hypothetical ice giant was put forward as an explanation for the similar orbital configurations of six distant objects beyond the orbit of Neptune. Located beyond the orbit of Pluto, the mysterious ice giant is regarded as being in interstellar space. Given that a spacecraft would be out of the influence of the Sun, using a craft with solar panels would be difficult. A craft similar to New Horizons, which operates on a radioisotope, may be a solution for powering instruments to Planet 9 in order to study the world up close. SA Where could Planet 9 be? Make contact: @spaceanswers /AllAboutSpaceMagazine questions@spaceanswers.com Update your knowledge at…

ASTRONOMY What is a good first target for astrophotography? Brian Neville A good first target for astrophotography would probably be one that you can easily find and identify, such as the Moon or the naked eye planets. While working on something like astrophotography, it’s handy to keep the other elements such as telescope pointing rather simple. So choose something that is easy to find and track. For more specific targets, something that contains a lot of detail can be useful to help dial in your camera and settings. A popular first target is something like the Great Orion Nebula (M42). This is visible to the naked eye, so is easy to find and in a popular constellation. It also contains a lot of extra detail that you can slowly reveal…

DEEP SPACE What would happen if two stars collided? Gerald Wells There would be quite an explosion! The most common types of collisions occur between binary stars. The two orbiting stars can spiral in towards each other over time, until the larger star begins to pull off the outer layers of the smaller star. This transfer of material grows the larger star and pulls the smaller star closer. What happens next depends on the size of the stars. The two stars can merge into one bigger star, which begins a whole new life cycle; or if one of the stars is very massive, then the collision can trigger an enormous explosion known as a supernova, which leaves behind a dense core of either a neutron star or a black hole.…

OBSERVE SUMMER NEBULAE TONIGHT The nights may be short, but they’re perfect for finding some of the most fascinating objects in the sky Written by Stuart Atkinson Eagle Nebula (M16) Constellation: Serpens Magnitude: +6 Minimum equipment: Naked eye (under very dark sky) Type of nebula: Emission nebula M16 is one of greedy Sagittarius’ hoard of deep sky wonders, but you’ll only see it as a vague smudge on the Milky Way from a dark sky site, and binoculars are needed to bring it into clear view. Even then, you’ll just see a small area of misty grey. A small telescope will reveal hints of dark mottling in its centre – the famous 'Pillars of Creation' photographed so beautifully and famously by the Hubble Space Telescope. Owl Nebula (M97) Constellation: Ursa…

How to… Image the Perseids with your phone The most famous and reliable meteor shower of the year peaks on the night of 12-13 August. Here’s how to shoot it @ Matt Bigwood; Rexfeatures You’ll need: • Smartphone • Suitable app • Tripod for phones Meteor showers are associated with comets. When the Earth passes through the dust and debris left behind by the comet as it orbits the Sun, these particles fall through the atmosphere at high speed and burn up due to friction as they rub against the air molecules. This is what we see as meteors, or shooting stars, as they flash across the sky in streaks of light. Because we know roughly when we pass through the dust and debris left behind by various comets, we…

Contributors Kulvinder Singh Chadha What have we uncovered about dark energy? Kulvinder speaks to the experts who are bringing us closer to understanding it. Ben Evans Did you know there are ten stars due to go supernova in an astronomically-short time? We reveal which of our Sun’s stellar cousins are due to explode. Giles Sparrow In time, Mars will gain a ring and our home planet with meet its end. And that’s not all – find out what else Giles discovered about the future of our Solar System over on page 38. Colin Stuart Colin gets an update from the scientists who are working on the concepts behind interstellar travel, which star systems we’re headed to, and what’s required to become a space tourist. “To imagine yourself as a simulation,…

10 STARS DUE TO GO SUPERNOVA • Solar System-destroying shockwaves • Equal to trillions of megatons of TNT • Brighter than 10 billion suns Written by Ben Evans © Tobias Roetsch Since ancient times, supernovae – the explosive deaths of old stars – have been observed and recorded with fascination by humans here on Earth. Chinese astronomers described an event in 185 CE as resembling a large bamboo mat in the sky and noted that its five colours were “both pleasing and otherwise”. Almost a thousand years later in 1006, Islamic scholars witnessed a “spectacle” three times the apparent size and 16 times the brightness of Venus, which may also have been recorded in Native American petroglyphs. Then, in 1604, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler directly observed the most recent…

Colonising the Solar System Earth has a few billion years left before the brightening Sun makes its surface uninhabitable – so where could we go next? Year likely to happen Temperature at time of colonisation Type of habitat Atmospheric constituents at time of colonisation The Moon 2050 -180°C to 120°C (-292ºF to 248ºF) Pressurised environment No atmosphere – however, this means that environmental conditions on the Moon will change less dramatically than they will back here on Earth. Mars 2100 -55°C (-67ºF) Pressurised environment or terraformed planet Carbon dioxide – but planetary engineering could trigger a greenhouse effect and release trapped ice, warming the planet to produce a breathable atmosphere. Callisto 2200 -140°C (-220ºF) Pressurised environment None. Callisto would remain too cold to terraform until the Sun enters its red…

THE SPACESUIT A key part of any space traveller’s equipment Oxygen supply While the environment inside your craft would have its own oxygen, if you needed to venture outside of your spaceship then breathable air is a must. Communications When you’re encased in a spacesuit, having radio communication with your fellow astronauts is key – especially as you’re too far from Earth for quick help. Visor While most of the journey would be far from any bright light, a visor is nonetheless important for when you are up close to a star. Without one, the searing light could easily blind you. Water supply Water is a key ingredient for life. You’ll certainly need it if you’re roving out and about once you reach your destination. HOW INTERSTELLAR TRAVEL AFFECTS THE…

SOLAR SYSTEM How realistic is the film, The Martian? Katherine Matson The Martian is celebrated as one of the most accurate science fiction films ever released. Many elements of the film have had a lot of thought put into them. With the exception of a few small tweaks for cinema, it generally holds up to scientific scrutiny and gives a good representation of what a trip to Mars could involve. The biggest issue of the whole film is the storm that kicks off the story. While it is true that you can get high-speed winds on Mars that are in excess of 95 kilometres (60 miles) per hour, the atmosphere is incredibly low density. With a density around one per cent that of Earth’s, even a 160-kilometre (100-mile) per hour…

DEEP SPACE How quickly do objects freeze in space? Tim Harrison A very rough calculation gives the average human body about six or seven hours before it freezes once exposed to space. As slow and as potentially painful as that would be, don’t worry about it too much. If you were exposed to the vacuum of space you would only be conscious for around 15 to 20 seconds before you passed out due to the lack of oxygen. A few minutes after that, you would meet your demise. In terms of other objects and the time it would take them, it depends entirely on their ability to hold onto heat. They would generally take a little longer to freeze compared to similar temperatures on Earth. This is because in the…

SPACE EXPLORATION How can I become an astronaut? Tom Watson 1 Study hard Astronauts need to be very academically capable, so make sure that you study hard at school and get good grades. If you’ve already finished education, you may find that you’ll need to brush up on your science and space knowledge. 2 Earn a degree Almost all modern astronauts need a university degree or equivalent in a relevant field. This can be Natural Sciences (physics, biology, chemistry or mathematics), Engineering or Medicine. Studying aeronautics or astronautics as well will help. 3 Get some experience ESA looks for astronauts between the ages of 27 and 37 but for NASA it’s a bit broader, from 26 to 46. You’ll need at least three years of experience in a related postgraduate…

Capturing the Perseids Successfully image one of the most famous meteor showers Imaging meteors involves a little knowledge and a lot of luck. You can improve your chances of success by following the steps below. Be persistent: you’re likely to see a few meteors if you stay out for at least 20 minutes. The longer you’re outside, the more your chances increase. Being comfortable and warm will make the experience more enjoyable. Again, if you take more images, you are more likely to capture a meteor. Try not to be disappointed if you don’t catch any though, as there’s always next year! 1 Wear plenty of layers It can get very cold at night, even during the summer months, so dress appropriately. A garden chair is good for comfort, too.…

Improve your chances of seeing sunspots Knowledge and safety are the most important things when viewing the Sun Finding out when there are sunspots on the solar disc is obviously important and there are several websites with up-to-date information. You can also find detailed information about making safe solar filters and how to use your telescope to project the Sun’s image. With regards to safety, this is the most important issue when it comes to solar observing. If you have any doubts about what you are using, or how to use it, please seek out proper advice, either from a telescope dealership, a local astronomical society, or the British Astronomical Association. 1 Fit a solar filter If you’re using a solar filter to observe the sunspots, make sure the filter…

WORTH £329.99! WIN OLIVON PC3 8X56 BINOCULARS Courtesy of Optical Hardware Ltd, we’re giving away a pair of multi-purpose binoculars this month With their very lightweight design, the Olivon PC3 8x56 binoculars are ideal for those who like to dabble in not just observing the night sky, but watching the natural world up close as well. Featuring Bak4 prisms along with a silver coating, the Olivon PC3 8x56 binoculars deliver exceptionally crisp, clear and bright views of a selection of targets, from the Moon and the naked eye planets of our Solar System to wildlife and stunning landscapes. With a rubber coating and a fi lling of nitrogen, these multi-purpose binoculars are also waterproof and are able to withstand observations in a variety of locations and weather conditions, making them…

An interview with… Neil deGrasse Tyson The host of StarTalk has become one of the world’s best-known astrophysicists, popularising space and science for millions Interviewed by David Crookes “I’m intrigued by the idea that we are a record of something playing out in another way inside of a black hole’s event horizon” INTERVIEW BIO Neil deGrasse Tyson As the founder of the Department of Astrophysics at the American Museum of Natural History in 1997 and director of the Hayden Planetarium at the Rose Centre for Earth, Neil deGrasse Tyson has his fingers in many pies. For most of us though, he is the author and astrophysicist who regularly writes books and appears on our television screens. His numerous appearances on various US TV shows from The Universe to The Colbert…

THE SPACECRAFT Scientists and science fiction writers have long dreamed up ways of travelling between the stars Daedalus In the 1970s, the British Interplanetary Society conducted research into a rocket that could travel between the stars. Their aim was to send their fusion-powered, 54,000-tonne spaceship to reach Barnard’s Star (which is 5.9 light years away) in 50 years. Project Orion An idea from the 1950s and 1960s would have used controlled nuclear explosions to propel an interstellar craft. The difficulty was that many countries were (and still are) signed up to an international treaty banning the detonation of nuclear devices in space. Breakthrough Starshot The latest idea from Stephen Hawking and Yuri Milner is to send a swarm of tiny probes to the Alpha Centauri system by firing a powerful…

YOUR QUESTIONS ANSWERED BY OUR EXPERTS In proud association with the National Space Centre www.spacecentre.co.uk Sophie Allan National Space Academy Education Officer Sophie studied astrophysics at university. She has a special interest in astrobiology and planetary science. Josh Barker Education Team Presenter Having earned a master’s in physics and astrophysics, Josh continues to pursue his interest in space at the National Space Centre. Gemma Lavender Editor Gemma holds a master's degree in astrophysics, is a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and an Associate Member of the Institute of Physics. Robin Hague ScienceWriter Robin has a degree in physics with space technology and a master's in hybrid rocket engine design. He contributes regularly to All About Space. Tamela Maciel Space Communications Manager Tamela has a degree in astrophysics and writes…

DEEP SPACE How did we work out that the universe is expanding faster than we thought? Joanna Burns Recently, a team of 15 scientists used the Hubble telescope to analyse the movements of 2,500 stars, achieving the most precise measurements of star movement ever taken. From this, they were able to calculate that the universe is expanding at a rate of 73.2 kilometres (45.5 miles) per second for every megaparsec (which is 3.26 million light years) of distance. That’s a touch faster than previous measurements of the universe’s speed, determined from the cosmic microwave background – the relic radiation of the birth of the universe. The reason for this faster rate is unknown, but understanding this change is the next big challenge. JB…

SPACE EXPLORATION What is the secret X-37B space plane doing? Paul Johnson © Alamy; NASA; ESO Unfortunately, not many people know exactly what this space plane is up to. What we do know is that the X-37B space plane is a former NASA mission that was transferred to the US Department of Defense. Operated by the United States Air Force, its official mission is to demonstrate reusable space technologies. As a Department of Defense project, many of the precise details regarding the X-37B’s missions are kept secret, leading to rampant speculation on what the spacecraft is actually up to. Many of these claims are refuted and the emphasis on testing new space technologies has been reiterated. The latest mission was designed to test a brand new propulsion system. This system,…

SOLAR SYSTEM What are the planets like on the inside? Even among the worlds of our own Solar System we see a huge variety of planetary composition Diane Jones © ESA; Medialab The terrestrial planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are separated out into similar layers – a hot dense core, a warm pliable mantle and a cooled rocky crust. Mercury, closest to the Sun, is around 70 per cent metallic and 30 per cent rocky. Its core is thought to comprise as much as 85 per cent of the planet, a liquid heart of iron 4,000 kilometres (2,485 miles) in diameter. This is covered by 600 kilometres (373 miles) of silicon rich mantle and between 100 to 200 kilometres (62 to 124 miles) of rocky crust. Venus, similar in…

This month’s naked eye targets Summer night skies are rich with stars and constellations, but you’ll have to stay up late The Summer Triangle The Summer Triangle is an asterism of stars from three different constellations. It is made up of the stars Deneb in Cygnus, Altair in Aquila and Vega in Lyra. The Cygnus Rift The Cygnus Rift is a dark gash that cuts through the Milky Way along the constellation of Cygnus. It’s caused by dust and gas obscuring the stars behind it. The Wild Duck Cluster Messier 11 is an open cluster in the constellation of Scutum. It looks like a stellar formation of birds in binoculars, hence its name. The ‘Double Double’ Star Epsilon Lyrae is a beautiful double star that is easily split in binoculars.…

The Northern Hemisphere The summer skies are alive with star clusters and a smattering of galaxies this month © Wil Tirion; NASA; ESA; Adam Evans; R Jay Gabany Leaving July and heading into August, the summer skies still offer a lot in the way of deep-sky objects for astronomers who enjoy observing the night sky in the late evening and into the small hours. As well as the nebulae of the summer, the star clusters of Cygnus, Hercules and low-on-the-horizon Ophiuchus, and the galaxies of Ursa Major are excellent pickings for observers with binoculars and telescopes. August, in particular, is an ideal time to observe our nearest spiral, the Andromeda Galaxy (M31). The star clusters NGC 884, NGC 7686 and NGC 1502 of Perseus, Andromeda and Camelopardalis respectively, are good…

Me & My Telescope Send your astrophotography images to photos@spaceanswers.com for a chance to see them featured in All About Space Bob Ford Wiltshire, UK Telescope: Sky-Watcher Evostar 80ED “I bought my first telescope, a Sky-Watcher Explorer 200P, back in 2010. Keen to show others the amazing objects in space, I delved into astrophotography. On clear evenings, I partake in both planetary and deep-sky imaging. Since it takes a good half an hour to set up my equipment, I built an observatory with a roll-off roof – it now has an extension in the form of a warm room with a bed!” Hamed Fayeghi Harrietville, Australia “The night sky, specifically the Milky Way, has always been one of my favourite subjects for astrophotography. Before moving to Australia, I was very…