Innholdsfortegnelse for No. 48 i All About Space

New Horizons captures curious activity on Pluto’s frozen face Unusual cellular movement at the icy Sputnik Planum has scientists at NASA scratching their heads A new image that was captured by NASA’s New Horizons’ Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) on Christmas Eve has piqued the interest of scientists due to the strange fragmentation of ice at the Sputnik Planum – a large frozen plain that forms the left side of Pluto’s ‘heart’. The Sputnik Planum, which sits at a lower elevation than the surrounding regions, has seemingly divided itself into separate cells, with each of these sections ranging between 16 and 40 kilometres (10 and 25 miles) in diameter. Odder still, when viewed at low Sun angles, it appears that these cells have slightly elevated centres as well as raised…

THINK YOU KNOW OUR SUN ? Despite its proximity, we're still in the dark when it comes to knowing everything about our star Written by David Crookes “If we don’t understand the star that is on our doorstep, then we haven’t a hope of understanding the others” Dr Scott McIntosh Carved on the walls and sarcophagi of the pyramids located at the vast ancient burial ground of Saqqara are mentions of Amun, the Ancient Egyptian god of creation. He was thought to reside inside the Sun and his role in Egyptian life became very important as a result. But only when he was later combined with the Sun god Ra to become the God of Kings, did he rise to be the most worshipped ruler of them all. He was,…

All about the Sun Interesting facts that will shed more light on your knowledge of our star Over one million Earths could fit inside the Sun – as could nearly 1,000 Jupiters. Earth receives around 15 billion trillion joules of solar energy each day – roughly equivalent to 10,000 times global daily energy consumption. A bolt of lightning can reach a temperature of 29,727º C (53,540º F) – around fives times the surface temperature of the Sun! Solar winds travel at around 400 km/s (250 mil/s). The fastest recorded wind gust on Earth was taken during Cyclone Olivia in 1996. It was 0.11km/s (0.07mi/s). When the Sun emits a solar flare, on average the amount of energy released is equivalent to 100 million megaton hydrogen bombs all exploding at the…

At the heart of a monstrous magnet Magnetic field Magnetars are known for their extremely powerful magnetic fields, which produce high-energy X-ray and gamma ray bursts. These magnetic fields are hundreds of millions times stronger than any man-made magnet on Earth. Outburst The fireball, produced by magnetic field decay, ejects intense flashes of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. These giant flares leave the surface of the magnetar at the speed of light and their radiation has even been recorded on Earth. Solid crust This outer layer is often only 500m (1,640ft) thick. Eventually, it fractures under the extreme magnetic stress. After all, a magnetar placed at the distance of the Moon could wipe all the credit cards on Earth. X-rays are then released by the resulting fireball. The fluid layer Extending out…

Explorer’s Guide Pluto One of the largest worlds in the Kuiper Belt of the outer Solar System, Pluto plays host to surprising contrasts and possible geological activity When compared to the major planets of our Solar System, Pluto is tiny, with a diameter just half that of Mercury. Yet, when it was discovered in 1930 it was heralded as the “ninth planet”, a tag that stuck until surprisingly recently. This was partly because Pluto was found during a deliberate planetary search, and because it simply didn’t fit in anywhere else. Some astronomers suggested, almost immediately, that Pluto might just be the brightest object in a belt of small worlds orbiting beyond Neptune, but it was not until 1992 that astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope detected another small object in…

Space elevator Launching into space is a hazardous process. Wouldn’t it be simpler if we could take a lift? “There would be no violent launch, just electric motors gently lifting you into space” Riding the elevator The tether provides a physical link for the climbers to journey into space. Most likely the tether will be a ribbon shape and the climbers will simply clamp on and drive up it with rollers. Power could be provided through a carbon tether from solar panels on the counterweight, or carry solar panels lit by ground based lasers. The climbers would travel at about 200km/h (124mph), taking 7.5 days to reach GEO, making for a very different launch experience. © Adrian Mann Escape velocity In some designs, the tether extends well beyond GEO. In…

Working out the weather We will soon be able to study the atmospheres of some nearby Venus-like exoplanets Atmospheric absorption Some of the star’s light will travel through the planet’s atmosphere, if there is one. Planetary transit As a planet passes in front of its star relative, as viewed from Earth, it blocks the star’s light. Composition The composition and thickness of the atmosphere will dictate what sort of light we receive on Earth. How thick is it? A thick atmosphere will block more light and push it to the red end of the spectrum, while a thin atmosphere will show light on the blue end of the spectrum. What is it made of? The atmosphere’s composition also affects the light, letting us study its absorption and allowing us to…

DEEP SPACE Why are most stars in the universe in pairs? Leanne Wilson It’s thought to be down to the way they form. Up to 50 per cent of all stars are in binary systems. However, some astronomers estimate that an even higher percentage of stars are born in pairs. Our theories of star formation suggest that most stars form in clusters rather than singularly. In the denser part of clusters, stars could have paired up, forming binary stars. Another way in which stars can end up in pairs is by the breaking up of discs around newly formed stars. Discs of gas and dust are a natural result of the star formation process due to the initial rotation of the interstellar cloud that collapses to make a star. A…

SPACE EXPLORATION Would terraforming Mars affect its gravity? Henry Johnson No, the gravity would not be affected. This is because gravity is only influenced by an object’s mass. This means that, in order for the gravity on Mars to be affected, we would need to add or take away a substantial amount of mass. Terraforming Mars – that’s making it more hospitable for human habitation – does neither of these things. Instead, terraforming Mars involves the incredible feat of building up its atmosphere, keeping the globe warm and keeping the atmosphere from being lost to outer space. Mars’ gravity, which is 38 per cent that of Earth’s, combined with its questionable magnetic field means that its atmosphere has been stripped away by the solar wind throughout history. With no way…

Stargazing with Mark Thompson The astronomer and presenter of Stargazing Live talks about his time on the show and how you can get started in astronomy Interviewed by Gemma Lavender “I can still vividly remember seeing Saturn through a telescope and it was enough to inspire me to learn more” INTERVIEWBIO Mark Thompson Mark is an astronomer, television presenter and writer best known for being part of the presenting team on the BBC show Stargazing Live. As well as being an enthusiastic astronomer, Mark is a qualified pilot and has written a selection of books on how to get started in astronomy. His most recent book is Philip’s Stargazing with Mark Thompson. When did you become interested in astronomy? I was a mere ten years old when I had my…

Shoot a planetary conjunction using a digital camera It’s rewarding to be able to record the visually stunning line ups that occur between the planets. Here’s how… @ ESO; F.Char You’ll need: • DSLR Camera • Tripod • Remote control shutter Conjunctions between the planets happen fairly regularly. But some are more spectacular than others. It is great to be able to record them and make them look good in an image. There is, of course, a lot to consider when setting up for that perfect shot. The first thing to remember is that you are photographing in low light conditions, so you’ll need to take your camera off automatic mode and be prepared to experiment with settings. Exposures will need to be longer than in daylight, too, so a…

Celestron CPC 800 GPS (XLT) Ideal for the serious astrophotographer, this superb instrument is a must-have for those looking to upgrade on a beginner scope “Even with a prevalent icy breeze, the CPC 800 stood impressively still” Telescope advice Cost: £1,999 ($2,843) From: David Hinds Ltd Type: Schmidt-Cassegrain Aperture: 8” Focal length: 80” Best for... Intermediate Large budget Planetary viewing Lunar viewing Deep-sky objects Astrophotography With the CPC 800, you certainly get what you pay for. An incredibly well-made instrument, this beautifully-presented and, what appears to be a robust telescope on first impressions, is ideal for those looking to upgrade on a beginner’s telescope or for those looking for an all-rounder that allows astronomers to get their teeth into some serious astrophotography. The CPC 800 may look daunting to set…

Clyde Tombaugh The amateur astronomer who discovered Pluto and visited the dwarf planet after his death The existence of a planet beyond Neptune had been predicted by prominent American astrologer, Percival Lowell in 1905 but it was never proven in his lifetime. He had aimed a 40-inch reflector telescope at what he believed to be the right section of the sky, but he died in 1916 with his dream of discovering his so-called Planet X sadly unrealised. It was to be his biggest disappointment, yet it was the catalyst for a continued search. And, for amateur astronomer Clyde Tombaugh, Lowell’s hunch would yield great results. Lowell’s legacy was the observatory that bore his name and which had been built in 1894 for the purpose of studying Mars. It had come…

LAUNCH PAD YOUR FIRST CONTACT WITH THE UNIVERSE ©ESA © NASA; JPL-Caltech; Space Science Institute; MSSS; Hubble; ESA; S. Smartt Major Tim takes a spacewalk selfie Tim Peake was sent to the International Space Station (ISS) on 15 December 2015 and has already taken part in a spacewalk with fellow astronaut Tim Kopra of NASA. This was to carry out repairs and replace a malfunctioning voltage regulator on the outside of the ISS, which maintains its orbit with an altitude of around 400 kilometres (250 miles) above Earth’s surface. Successfully replacing the faulty unit ahead of schedule, Peake took the opportunity to take a selfie before the spacewalk was cut short when Kopra’s helmet sprung a water leak! Martian panorama NASA’s Curiosity rover has captured a 360 degree panorama of…

Early universe's heaviest galaxy cluster found NASA’s Great Observatories are probing a cluster that weighs 500 trillion Suns Three of NASA’s Great Observatories are performing the most detailed study yet of an extremely large and relatively new galaxy cluster located 10 billion light years from Earth. The galaxy cluster, classified as IDCS J1426.5+3508 (or IDCS 1426 for short), weighs the equivalent of 500 trillion Suns and is the youngest cluster on record to ever reach such a size at such a young age. First discovered in 2012 by the Spitzer Space Telescope, IDCS 1426 is confirmed as 90 per cent dark matter (thanks to data from the Chandra X-Ray), adding a fascinating aspect to this giant object. “We are pushing the boundaries with this discovery,” says Mark Brodwin, lead scientist…

Astronauts' biological clocks affected by spaceflight, says NASA research The rigors of living and operating in space can cause sleep patterns to be disturbed and misaligned over long periods © NASA; JPL-Caltech; JHUAPL; SwRI; ESA; University of Hawaii; Rob Ratkowski; PDCO A new internal research report at NASA has been investigating the effects of spaceflight on the sleep patterns and biological clocks of astronauts, and early results suggest a number of different factors can significantly misalign those vitally important resting periods. The report, conducted at NASA’s Ames Research Center in Silicon Valley by Fatigue Countermeasures Laboratory researcher Erin Flynn-Evans, has been monitoring a variety of different factors that could potentially disturb the sleep of an astronaut, such as normal operational noise and uncomfortable temperatures. It also highlights the effect these…

Gemini 8: 50 years on From successfully docking two crafts in space to a horrifying, stomach-turning problem… ©NASA Neil Armstrong was the first person to walk on the Moon but Apollo 11 in 1969 was not his first foray into space. On 16 March 1966, NASA launched the two-man, three-day Gemini 8 mission from Cape Kennedy (now Cape Canaveral). Armstrong was the commander and, together with David Scott, spent more than six hours performing nine manoeuvres to rendezvous with the unmanned Gemini Agena Target Vehicle, which launched earlier in the day. Having completed the first ever successful docking in orbit of two vehicles, control of Gemini 8 was transferred to Agena. At this point, Scott should have begun preparing for an extravehicular activity (EVA) to retrieve a nuclear radiation experiment…

SUPER VENUS What can we learn from the planets that are bigger, badder and hotter than Earth? Written by Jonathan O'Callaghan “Its proximity to Earth makes Gliese 1132b the most important planet ever found outside of the Solar System” Dr Drake Deming As we continue to find more and more planets outside of the Solar System, one thing is becoming very obvious: there are a vast array of planets, of all sizes and orbits. We’ve found super-Earths, rocky planets bigger than Earth in habitable orbits, and hot Jupiters, gas giants in tight orbits. And now a new class of planet is coming to the fore: the super-Venus. Finding out exactly how common the array of planets in our Solar System might be has been one of the key questions for…

Super-Venus candidates Kepler 69c Parent star: Kepler 69 Distance (in light years): 1,930 Size (in Earths): 1.7 Estimate temperature: Unknown Discovered by: Kepler Space Telescope Gliese 1132b Parent star: Gliese 1132 Distance (in light years): 39 Size (in Earths): 1.16 Estimate temperature: 230°C (440°F) Discovered by: MEarth-South array Gliese 832c Parent star: Gliese 832 Distance (in light years): 16 Size (in Earths): Unknown (But mass is 5.4 Earths) Estimate temperature: Unknown Discovered by: Anglo-Australian Telescope, Magellan Telescope, European Southern Observatory…

SOLAR SYSTEM Does the Sun move in space? John Breen Yes, it does. At an average speed of 720,000 kilometres (450,000 miles) per hour, the Sun – and therefore the planets in the Solar System – orbit the centre of the Milky Way galaxy at a distance of about 27,000 light years away. It actually takes about 240 million years to complete just one lap around our galaxy. As well as moving in an orbit, the Sun also rotates – however, not in the way that you might think. Our Star’s poles and equator move at different speeds in what is known as differential rotation. At the solar equator, it takes 25 days to complete one orbit and takes progressively longer to rotate the closer you get to the poles,…

DEEP SPACE Do exoplanets have moons? Matt Cox Given that the majority of the planets in our Solar System have moons, it’s very likely that they exist elsewhere in the universe around exoplanets, too. Of course, as moons are often much smaller than their host planets, it’s difficult to prove that they exist outside the Solar System as we’re observing from thousands of light years away. But, despite the hurdle, astronomers use a technique known as gravitational microlensing, which takes advantage of chance alignments between stars, in an attempt to uncover any potential candidates. If one of these stars has a planet circling it, the alien world can act as a second lens to brighten or dim the light even more. Sadly, however – and as a team of exomoon…

DEEP SPACE How are planets without stars made? Samuel Richards © NASA; ESO Worlds that don’t orbit a star and wander the galaxy alone, known as rogue planets, may have formed in a planetary system similar to how the planets in our Solar System – and any other star-orbiting world for that matter – did, before being cast out by another planet in their system and forced to wander the universe alone. Alternatively, and according to some scientific theories, a rogue planet may have never been bound to a parent star in the first place. Worlds that have a mass that’s typical of a planet and that have enough gravity to take on a round appearance – but not enough gravity to sustain fusion in their core like a star…

Spaceshots & snapshots of Project MERCURY & GEMIN What’s in the sky? © NASA; Science Photo Library Jargon buster Conjunction An alignment of celestial objects at the same celestial longitude. The conjunction of the Moon and the planets is determined with reference to the Sun. A planet is in conjunction with the Sun when it and Earth are aligned on opposite sides of the Sun. Opposition When a celestial body is in line with the Earth and Sun. During opposition, an object is visible for the whole night, rising at sunset and setting at sunrise. At this point in its orbit, the celestial object is closest to Earth, making it appear bigger and brighter. Magnitude An object’s magnitude tells you how bright it will appear from Earth. In astronomy, magnitudes…

Shoot a planetary conjunction Taking successful conjunction images How to prepare for and image a 'gathering' of planets When setting up, it’s easier to manoeuvre your telescope mount without the scope or counterweight attached. Once you are happy with your alignment, you can add the telescope and counterweights, but be careful not to knock the mount out of alignment as you do this. Make sure the mount is level and adjust each tripod leg as necessary. You can use a small spirit level to help. A polar alignment scope can help, too, if you have one. Don’t forget to use a red torch during set up to keep your eyes dark-adapted. 1 Be prepared and check your kit Preparation is everything. Check batteries, lenses, memory cards and your tripod, especially…

Observe Comet Ikeya-Murakami Comets are always wonderful objects to have in our skies. This month offers a possible bright one @ SPL You’ll need: • Binoculars • Telescope • Low power eyepiece • Star chart Comets are arguably among one of the most amazing sights in the night sky. Even the faint ones, which require a telescope to see, are impressive. They are also notoriously unpredictable! Whereas many comets take hundreds, if not thousands, of years to orbit the Sun, Comet P/2010 V1 Ikeya-Murakami, to give it its correct title, is a short period comet, which means that it is in a fairly close orbit around the Sun and therefore can be seen regularly. It swings by the Sun every 5.29 years and this is when we have a chance…

The Northern Hemisphere With winter well underway, there’s a glut of night-sky objects available to observe © Wil Tirion; NASA Throughout February and early March, observers using the naked eye, binoculars or a telescope will be treated to a variety of night-sky targets after 5pm. The Orion Nebula (M42), which glows at magnitude +4 in the constellation of Orion, makes an excellent target for binoculars or a telescope, while the +3.44-magnitude Andromeda Galaxy (M31) is just visible to the naked eye from dark-sky sites and through telescopes and binoculars in urban regions. The circumpolar galaxies of Ursa Major, which includes the Pinwheel Galaxy (M101), are choice objects for deep-sky enthusiasts keen to observe in the early evening. At varying times of the night, the naked-eye planets will make their way…

NASA suspends March launch of InSight mission to Mars Following unsuccessful attempts to fix a leak in its science payload, the agency has confirmed the programme won’t make its 2016 launch window “Space exploration is unforgiving, and the bottom line is that we’re not ready to launch in the 2016 window”John Grunsfeld, associate administrator for NASA NASA has announced that the Mars-bound InSight (Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations Geodesy and Heat Transport) vehicle will not launch for the Red Planet this year, following numerous failed attempts to fix a leak in the prime instrument of its science payload. “Learning about Mars’ interior structure has been a high priority objective for planetary scientists since the Viking era,” says John Grunsfeld, associate administrator for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington, in an…

New asteroid-defense project gets the green light NASA programme finally centralised to prepare for and manage Near-Earth Objects After much toing and froing, NASA has finally centralised its ongoing programme to prepare for and manage Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) in the form of the Planetary Defense Coordination Office (PDCO). With 1,500 NEOs identified each year, the new department will oversee all programmes and projects related to asteroid and comet detection, as well as organising interagency and intergovernmental responses. “Asteroid detection, tracking and defence of our planet is something that NASA, its interagency partners, and the global community take very seriously,” says John Grunsfeld, associate administrator for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. “While there are no known impact threats at this time, the 2013 Chelyabinsk super-fireball and the recent ‘Halloween Asteroid’ close approach…

How the Sun affects us As hot as it is, our star’s activities could so easily leave us cold Damage to electronics Solar flare protons as well as energetic electrons are able to cause damage to the electronics of spacecraft, disrupting their systems. Earth’s natural defence Solar storm clouds are made up of charged particles, which are diverted around our planet thanks to the Earth’s magnetic field. SOHO Mission Launched in 1995, the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), contains 12 instruments which study the Sun from its deep core to the outer corona and solar wind. It gives up to three days notice of Earth-directed disturbances. Aircraft disruption The solar flare protons can cause unwanted radiation effects on aircraft, and can also disrupt GPS signals. In 2012, Delta Airlines diverted…

ENTER THE COSMIC BATTLEFIELD VIOLENT UNIVERSE The cosmos is not the serene place it first appears – it is full of aggressive offenders Written by Colin Stuart “A gamma ray burst often emits as much energy in a few seconds as our entire galaxy does in a year” Top 5 most destructive objects Gamma ray bursts Caused either when a massive star collapses into a black hole or when two neutron stars collide, the total gamma ray energy emitted is 100 trillion trillion times more than the largest nuclear weapon ever tested on Earth. Supernovae An explosion, which occurs upon the death of a star, supernovae are at least eight times more massive than our Sun. A supernova can commonly release twice the amount of energy as a typical gamma…

Keeping vigil over violence Spotting the burst The SWIFT telescope views half of the sky every time it orbits the Earth and its Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) is always on the lookout for sudden intense flashes. When it spots one, it immediately sends a message to astronomers on Earth and automatically orientates itself for a closer look. Studying it further The Ultraviolet/Optical telescope onboard the satellite is also pointing in the same direction as the X-ray Telescope. It can pick up some of the other forms of light created during the GRB. Pinning it down Within a minute of BAT being triggered, SWIFT’s X-ray Telescope (XRT) will have worked out the precise location of the Gamma Ray Burst to within a few thousands of a degree. A bright burst A…

Evolution of a super-Venus Habitable location Super-Venus exoplanets are largely thought to be located inside the habitable zone of stars. They may have once been able to host liquid water, perhaps when their host star was less active. Venus, in our own Solar System, is thought to have hosted water before the planet started to get much hotter. Turning up the heat As the super-Venus got hotter, any water that was on its surface would have begun to evaporate. This would have thickened the atmosphere, in turn causing the planet to get even hotter, increasing the temperature and rate of evaporation. This is known as the runaway greenhouse effect. Size matters The size of a super-Venus, 1.5 to 2 Earth radii, would allow it to retain a thick atmosphere without…

SPACE EXPLORATION Where have we launched the most rockets from? Sharon Hart © FreeVectorMaps.com; NASA Several places! If you ask most people to name a launch site it will be Cape Canaveral. The main US launch site has dominated space history both because of the Apollo Moon missions, and because of America’s open approach to its launches. Another, smaller group will name Canaveral’s opposite number in the former Soviet Union, Baikonur; the launch site where Yuri Gagarin took off for humanity’s first spaceflight. Europe’s launch site at Kourou in French Guiana would probably come in a respectable third, but despite these three dominating the public consciousness, there are 25 sites around the world where rockets have been launched into orbit. China, India and Japan all have active orbital launch sites,…

This month’s planets All of the Solar System’s bright planets – Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, Venus and Mercury – are splendidly arrayed in the morning skies Planet of the month Mars Right Ascension: 14h 11m Declination: 11° 39’ Constellation: Libra Magnitude: +0.7 Direction: South East On 7 February, Mars is located in mid-Libra some three degrees east of Alpha Librae (Zubenelgenubi, magnitude +2.8). Shining at magnitude +0.7, the planet is pretty easy to spot by now, rising at around 1.15am and culminating due south at an altitude of 23 degrees by 6am. Through the telescope, Mars appears as a small orange disc 7.2 arcseconds in diameter, and it shows quite a pronounced phase, as it is 90 per cent illuminated. Under good viewing conditions, a 100mm telescope at high magnification (150x…

Copernicus crater Found in the northwest of the lunar surface, this crater is delightful through binoculars © NASA Top tip! Craters like Copernicus are best observed during certain phases of the Moon. Copernicus, for example, is best observed during a waning gibbous phase to a waning crescent phase. If you choose to observe Copernicus during a full Moon, use a Moon filter to block out any glare. One of the most famous of the Moon’s bright impact craters – the truly magnificent crater Copernicus – can be marvelled at through your binoculars and telescopes between 17 February and 3 March 2016. Located around 150 kilometres (93 miles) south of the mountainous border of the Sea of Rains (Mare Imbrium) and lying on the eastern border of the Sea of Isles…

Observe Comet Ikeya-Murakami Tracking the comet down Comets can be faint but still rewarding to see or photograph To give yourself the best possible chance of seeing P/2010 V1, you will need to know its position, so a finder chart is almost essential, unless it turns out to be really bright! You can find suitable charts on the internet, which will give an accurate position for the object. If you are using a telescope, use a low power, wide field eyepiece. Some comets can show up well with the use of filters. Experiment with UHC or OIII filters or even better, if you have one, a ‘Swan Band’ filter, which will enhance the dust tail of the comet. 1 Use a finderchart You should use a finder chart in order…